Biohybrid miniature robots using living organisms

In recent years, miniature robots have shown remarkable potential for applications in the fields of in vivo drug delivery, disease treatment, and extreme environment sensing. However, due to their high structural rigidity, poor biocompatibility, low adaptability in complex terrains, and lack of active obstacle avoidance, traditional synthetic miniature robots can usually only be investigated for proof-of-concept studies while ignoring their in vivo safety or the complexity of the application environments, which is still a significant gap from the needs of practical applications in vivo or in extreme environments. Due to their superior biocompatibility and living biological function, living biohybrid miniature robots (LBMs) have great clinical applications in vivo disease diagnosis and treatment, and in extreme environment sensing, search, and rescue. They have environmental adaptive capabilities comparable to natural organisms, thus maximizing the functionality and locomotor capabilities of living organisms. Here, we systematically summarize the components and fabrication strategies of LBMs, and comprehensively discuss the driving modes of them, as well as the efficient goal-oriented realization of these mechanisms in specific application scenarios. Finally, we discuss the current challenges facing the field and provide an outlook on future developments and research directions.